Books of Hours in the Gulbenkian Collection
Forming part of his collection of 35 illuminated manuscripts, Calouste Gulbenkian acquired around 16 books of hours, including codices and loose leaves, highlights among which are the Book of Hours of Margaret of Cleves (fig. 1) and the Book of Hours of Isabel of Brittany (fig. 2), for their historical and artistic significance.
![Fig. 1 – Book of Hours of Margaret of Cleves. Paintings by the Master of Margaret of Cleves. The Hague, c. 1395-1400. Manuscript on parchment. Image: Christ crucified between the Virgin and St John the Evangelist, fol. 99v. Calouste Gulbenkian Museum.](https://cdn.gulbenkian.pt/wp-content/uploads/sites/5/2024/07/livro-horas-01-1.jpg)
The increase in production – and resulting increase in market availability – of manuscripts during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, as the centres of creation moved from rural monasteries to the cities – where the number of commissioners was growing – combined with Gulbenkian’s preference for abundantly and luxuriously illustrated books over more modestly decorated ones, probably lies at the heart of this great interest.
![Fig. 2 – Book of Hours of Isabel of Brittany (Lamoignon Hours). Paintings by the Bedford Master (Haincelin de Haguenau) and assistants. Paris, c. 1415-16. Manuscript on parchment. Image: Last Judgement, fol. 122v. Calouste Gulbenkian Museum.](https://cdn.gulbenkian.pt/wp-content/uploads/sites/5/2024/07/livro-horas-02-1.jpg)
A typology created in Europe from the second half of the thirteenth century onwards, Book of Hours contain prayers intended for private devotion, particularly by laypeople, at a time when social life was progressively moving from rural fiefdoms to cities, where, in addition to the wealthy nobility, a bourgeois class was also starting to become established.
![Fig. 3 – Book of Hours. Paintings by Noël Bellemare. France, c. 1520. Binding (17th century) in gilded and pierced metal over a ground of garnet red enamel, engraved with designs of foliage and eagles addorsed with a necklace bearing the cross of Lorraine and a ducal crown; gemstones and clasps in the shape of fleurs-de-lys; manuscript on parchment. Calouste Gulbenkian Museum](https://cdn.gulbenkian.pt/wp-content/uploads/sites/5/2024/07/livro-horas-03-1.jpg)
The fact that these books were commissioned by wealthy patrons for their personal use or as gifts (for example, as wedding presents), and not to be used as part of formal worship, explains their small, often miniature size (fig. 3), which made them easily portable. In addition, these books appear to follow a stable structure, which has been conventionally established over time, although some show specificities relating to the period, place of production or the patron.
![Fig. 4 – Book of Hours. Paintings by two followers of the Master of Adelaide of Savoy, by an illuminator of the circle of the Master of Jouvenel and by an artist from Tours in the style of Jean Fouquet. Poitiers and/or Tours?, c. 1460-70. Manuscript on parchment. Image: Calendar (Jousting on river, represented in the border), fol. 6v; Calendar (Harvest, represented in the border), fol. 7r. Calouste Gulbenkian Museum.](https://cdn.gulbenkian.pt/wp-content/uploads/sites/5/2024/07/livro-horas-04-1.jpg)
As a rule, these books start with a calendar, which usually includes illuminations for the different months and zodiac signs (fig. 4). In some cases, this section is accompanied by instruments (tables or circles) for calculating liturgical dates and festivities, such as Easter (fig. 5).
![Fig. 5 – Book of Hours. Paintings by Masters of the Delft Grisailles. Delft, 1443. Manuscript on parchment. Image: Calculation tables for liturgical events, fols. 13v-14r. Calouste Gulbenkian Museum.](https://cdn.gulbenkian.pt/wp-content/uploads/sites/5/2024/07/livro-horas-05-1.jpg)
The representation of the destinatary of the book, often depicted kneeling in prayer before devotional figures, for example the Virgin and Child (fig. 6, 7 and 8), in some cases precedes the Offices or Hours, groups of prayers dedicated to the Virgin, the Holy Spirit, the Cross, the saints, the dead, among others. These groups can contain up to eight prayers, according to the time of day and with different levels of importance: Matins (dawn), Lauds (morning), Prime, Terce, Sext, Nones (small prayers said between morning and afternoon), Vespers (afternoon) and Compline (evening).
![Fig. 6 – Book of Hours of René II, Duke of Lorraine. Paintings by Maître François. Paris, c. 1473-79. Manuscript on parchment. Image: Virgin and Child with René II, Duke of Lorraine, kneeling, bearing a coat of arms with the arms of Lorraine and Anjou, fol. 10r. Calouste Gulbenkian Museum.](https://cdn.gulbenkian.pt/wp-content/uploads/sites/5/2024/07/livro-horas-06-1.jpg)
![Fig. 7 – Cutting from the Book of Hours of Charles de Martigny. Painting by Jean Bourdichon. Tours, c. 1490. Manuscript on parchment. Image: Charles de Martigny praying, fol. 1v. Calouste Gulbenkian Museum.](https://cdn.gulbenkian.pt/wp-content/uploads/sites/5/2024/07/livro-horas-07-2.jpg)
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In the case of the Office of the Virgin, the inclusion of illuminations based on the narrative cycle of the Infancy of Christ (Annunciation, Visitation, Nativity, Annunciation to the Shepherds, Adoration of the Magi, Presentation of Jesus in the Temple, Flight into Egypt, Coronation of the Virgin) as an introduction to each prayer is frequent, but not always observed (fig. 9 and 10). The Office of the Dead is frequently illustrated with iconography related to the representation of deceased people, for example the Resurrection (fig. 11) or the Last Judgement, among others.
![Fig. 9 – Book of Hours. Paintings by Willem Vrelant or a close follower, Master of Fitzwilliam 268 (and Master of the Dresden Prayer Book. Bruges?, c. 1475. Manuscript on parchment. mage: Annunciation and Seated woman with a dog reading a book of hours (border), fol. 180v; Beginning of the Matins (before daybreak prayer), opening the Office of the Blessed Virgin Mary, for the use of Rome and Seated woman with a dog and book of hours (border), fol. 181r. Calouste Gulbenkian Museum.](https://cdn.gulbenkian.pt/wp-content/uploads/sites/5/2024/07/livro-horas-09-1.jpg)
![Fig. 10 – Book of Hours. Paintings by Noël Bellemare. France, c. 1520. Manuscript on parchment: Nativity, fol. 69v; Beginning of Prime (brief prayer in the morning) included in the Office of the Blessed Virgin Mary, for the use of Rome, fol. 70r. Calouste Gulbenkian Museum.](https://cdn.gulbenkian.pt/wp-content/uploads/sites/5/2024/07/livro-horas-10-1.jpg)
![Fig. 11 – Book of Hours. Paintings by Master of the Romuleon and an illuminator of the Tours school. Champagne or Lorraine?, c. 1480-90. Manuscript on parchment. Image: Raising of Lazarus; beginning of Vespers (afternoon prayer), opening the Office of the Dead, fol. 162r. Calouste Gulbenkian Museum.](https://cdn.gulbenkian.pt/wp-content/uploads/sites/5/2024/07/livro-horas-11-1.jpg)